Is Lok Geet Still Folk Music? A Changing Cultural Identity in Purvanchal and Western Bihar

 

Introduction

The Bhojpuri-speaking region of South Asia, including Purvanchal in eastern Uttar Pradesh and western Bihar, has one of the richest folk music traditions in India. For centuries, folk songs, or Lok Geet, have been an important part of social and cultural life. They accompanied every stage of life, from birth to death, and reflected the customs, language, beliefs, and emotions of the people. Songs such as Sohar, Kajri, Chaiti, Birha, Nirgun, Pachra, Purbi, Bidesia, and various Sanskar Lok Geet were created and preserved by local communities rather than by professional musicians. Today, however, the cultural environment in which these songs developed has changed significantly. This raises an important question. Can the music that is currently marketed as Bhojpuri folk music still be considered traditional Lok Geet?

From Community Tradition to Commercial Production

Traditionally, Lok Geet were not written for commercial success. They were created collectively and transmitted orally from one generation to another. There was no individual composer, no recording studio, and no copyright. Every village had its own musical variations, and songs changed naturally over time through community participation. During the last fifty years, this system has changed. The cassette industry of the 1980s introduced Bhojpuri music into commercial markets. Later, compact discs, television, and digital media expanded its audience. Today, YouTube, streaming platforms, and social media have transformed Bhojpuri music into a large entertainment industry with millions of listeners. This development has increased the visibility of Bhojpuri music, but it has also changed the way it is created. A large proportion of songs labelled as "folk" are now written by professional lyricists, composed in studios, programmed with electronic instruments, and produced for commercial distribution. These songs often borrow melodies, language, and themes from traditional Lok Geet, but their purpose is primarily commercial rather than cultural.

Why Has This Change Happened?

Several social changes have contributed to this transformation.

Rapid urbanisation has changed the social structure of villages. According to the Census of India, the urban population has increased steadily during the last four decades, while migration from eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar has become one of the largest internal migration movements in the country. At the same time, agriculture has declined as the main source of livelihood, and many rural families have shifted towards employment in the industrial and service sectors. These changes have reduced opportunities for collective singing during agricultural work, seasonal festivals, and family ceremonies. Joint families have gradually been replaced by nuclear families, and many traditional ceremonies now rely on recorded music or DJs instead of live performances by community members.

The spread of mobile phones, internet access, and digital entertainment has further changed listening habits. Young people are more likely to discover Bhojpuri music through online platforms than through family traditions.

The Present Condition of Lok Geet

Traditional Lok Geet have not completely disappeared, but their role has changed. Authentic Sohar, Kajri, Chaiti, Nirgun, and Sanskar Lok Geet can still be heard in some villages and among Bhojpuri diaspora communities. However, they now represent only a small part of the larger Bhojpuri music industry. Many of today's commercially successful songs are inspired by folk traditions but cannot be fully described as traditional folk music. Their creation, ownership, production, and distribution follow the structure of the modern music industry rather than the traditional community-based system. Therefore, it may be more appropriate to describe much of today's music as commercial folk-inspired music or regional popular music, rather than traditional Lok Geet.

Challenges for Artists and Cultural Heritage

Another important concern is the condition of traditional folk artists. Many village singers continue to face financial hardship and often depend on agriculture or daily-wage work for their livelihoods. At the same time, commercially adapted versions of traditional songs generate significant income for production companies and digital platforms, while the original custodians of these traditions receive little recognition or financial benefit. Traditional musical instruments are also becoming rare. Instruments that once formed an essential part of Bhojpuri folk performances are increasingly replaced by electronic keyboards, digital percussion, and computer-generated sounds. Instrument makers and repair artisans are gradually disappearing due to limited demand for their skills. Research and documentation remain inadequate. Compared with Indian classical music, there are very few systematic archives, musical transcriptions, field recordings, or long-term research projects dedicated to the Lok Geet traditions of Purvanchal and western Bihar. As a result, many songs survive only in the memories of elderly performers.

Why Do Lok Geet Still Matter?

The value of Lok Geet extends far beyond music. They preserve the Bhojpuri language, regional history, social values, women's experiences, agricultural traditions, and local knowledge. They are important sources for understanding the cultural identity of the Bhojpuri-speaking region. If these songs disappear, an important part of the region's intangible cultural heritage will also be lost. Recording songs in digital formats is important, but documentation alone cannot preserve a living tradition. Lok Geet survive only when they continue to be sung within families and communities.

Conclusion

The question is not whether Bhojpuri Lok Geet should change. Every living tradition evolves with time. The real issue is whether these songs continue to represent the cultural life of the communities that created them. Today, much of what is marketed as Bhojpuri folk music is better understood as commercially produced music inspired by folk traditions. At the same time, authentic Lok Geet continue to survive in limited social spaces where community participation remains active. The future of Bhojpuri musical heritage depends on documentation, research, community participation, support for traditional artists, preservation of indigenous musical instruments, and cultural policies that encourage intergenerational transmission. Without these efforts, the Bhojpuri-speaking region may continue to produce successful commercial music while gradually losing one of its most valuable cultural traditions

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Purvanchal Ke Sanskar geet : Music, Culture, and the Identity

Purvanchal is known not only for its rich history, sacred geography, and vibrant languages but also for its remarkable folk traditions. Among these traditions, folk songs occupy a special place because they preserve the emotions, beliefs, customs, and everyday experiences of the people. These songs are more than musical performances. They are living expressions of community life and cultural identity that have been passed from one generation to another through oral tradition. Music has always been an essential part of life in Purvanchal. Every important occasion, whether joyful or emotional, is accompanied by singing. Through these songs, communities celebrate birth, marriage, festivals, seasons, agricultural activities, and even moments of loss. Folk music, therefore, reflects the rhythm of life itself and continues to shape the region's cultural identity.

The Rich Tradition of Folk Songs in Purvanchal

The folk music tradition of Purvanchal is broad and diverse. Different songs are performed according to the occasion, season, occupation, and stage of life. Some of the major forms include Kajri, Chaiti, Hori, Birha, Purbi, Jhumar, Barahmasa, Alha, Sohar, Vivaah Geet, Kajli, Nirgun, Bhajan, Devi Geet, and Sanskar Geet. Each form represents a different aspect of social and cultural life. Seasonal songs such as Kajri and Chaiti celebrate changes in nature and the agricultural cycle. Hori is associated with the festival of Holi, while Birha expresses separation and longing. Nirgun and Bhajan reflect spiritual devotion, whereas Devi Geet are sung during religious ceremonies dedicated to local and Hindu deities. Among all these traditions, Sanskar Geet occupy a unique position because they accompany the important milestones of human life.

What Are Sanskar Geets

Sanskar Songs are traditional songs performed during various life-cycle ceremonies. They transform religious rituals into shared cultural experiences by bringing together family members, relatives, neighbours, and the wider community. Rather than being formal performances, these songs are sung collectively and naturally as part of everyday social life. The tradition begins with the birth of a child and continues through different stages of life until death. Every important ceremony has its own musical identity, making Sanskar Songs an inseparable part of the cultural life of Purvanchal. These songs preserve not only melodies but also memories, relationships, values, and local knowledge that have been passed down through generations.

Major Types of Sanskar Geet

The journey of Sanskar Geet begins with Sohar, which is sung to celebrate a child’s birth. These songs express happiness, gratitude, blessings, and hopes for the newborn's future. Closely related to Sohar is Badhai Geet, which celebrates the arrival of a new member of the family through joyful singing and playful interaction. The Mundan ceremony is accompanied by songs that bless the child with health, prosperity, and a bright future. Similarly, the Janeu or Yajnopavita ceremony includes songs that emphasise learning, discipline, knowledge, and social responsibility.

Marriage is the richest stage in the Sanskar tradition and encompasses numerous song forms performed across various rituals. These include Mangal Geet, Devi Geet, Sagun, Tilak Geet, Haldi Geet, Matkor, Madwa, Lava, Sindurdan, Kohbar, Chumawan, Parichhan, Imli Ghotai, Manar Pujai, Vidai Geet, and later Gauna Geet. Each reflects a different emotional and ceremonial moment, ranging from celebration and humour to affection, blessings, and farewell. Certain devotional songs and ritual laments are associated with death ceremonies. These compositions help families express grief while also conveying the belief that life continues beyond physical existence.

Music That Connects Communities

One of the most remarkable features of Purvanchal Sanskar Geet is their musical simplicity. Their melodies are easy to sing, allowing people of all ages to participate. Most songs are performed collectively, with one experienced singer leading while others respond together. This style creates a sense of unity and strengthens social relationships. Traditional rhythmic patterns such as Keharwa, Dadra, and Deepchandi are commonly heard in these songs. Musical accompaniment is generally limited to Dholak, Manjira, and hand clapping, ensuring that the focus remains on collective participation rather than technical performance. In these traditions, emotional expression is valued more than musical perfection.

The Voice of Culture and Identity

Sanskar Geet are much more than ritual music. They preserve the cultural identity of Purvanchal by documenting the region's customs, beliefs, language, and values. Through these songs, people learn about family relationships, respect for elders, community cooperation, and the importance of shared traditions. The songs also preserve Bhojpuri and other regional dialects, which carry local expressions and cultural meanings that cannot easily be translated into other languages. They serve as a living archive of oral literature and demonstrate how music helps preserve language and identity together.

Women have played the central role in keeping this tradition alive. For centuries, mothers, grandmothers, and elderly women have passed these songs to younger generations through participation rather than formal teaching. Their voices preserve family history, emotional experiences, and social knowledge that often remain absent from written records. In this way, Sanskar Geet also represent an important archive of women's cultural heritage.

Challenges in the Modern World

Like many oral traditions, Sanskar Geet face several challenges today. The growth of nuclear families has reduced opportunities for younger generations to learn songs from elders. Urbanisation and migration have changed family life, while recorded music and DJs have replaced traditional singing in many ceremonies. The declining use of regional languages has further weakened the connection between young people and their musical heritage. Despite these challenges, the tradition has not disappeared. Many families in rural Purvanchal, as well as migrant communities living in other parts of India and abroad, continue to perform these songs during important ceremonies. Their continued practice demonstrates the resilience of cultural traditions even in changing social conditions.

Preserving a Living Heritage

The future of Sanskar Geet depends on both community participation and systematic documentation. Recording performances, preparing written collections, creating digital archives, and encouraging research in universities can help preserve this valuable tradition. Schools and higher education institutions can also introduce regional folk music into their curricula, helping students understand the cultural significance of their local heritage. Digital platforms, online archives, podcasts, and audio-visual documentation provide new opportunities to make these traditions accessible to younger generations. At the same time, preservation should not remain limited to archives. The songs must continue to be sung during family and community ceremonies, because living traditions survive through practice rather than documentation alone.

Conclusion

Purvanchal’s Sanskar Geet are among the most valuable expressions of India's folk heritage. They combine music, language, ritual, memory, and community into a single cultural tradition that has shaped the region’s identity for centuries. From the joyful celebration of birth to the emotional farewell of marriage and the philosophical acceptance of death, these songs accompany every important stage of life. Preserving Sanskar Geet means preserving much more than music. It means protecting the cultural memory, linguistic richness, social values, and collective identity of Purvanchal. As long as these songs continue to be sung, they will remain a living bridge between the past, the present, and the future.

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The journey of the Hindi film song and playback singing

 

Introduction

The journey of the Hindi film song and the evolution of playback singing. This journey closely follows the development of Hindi cinema itself. Film music in India has never existed in isolation. It has always reflected social structure, cultural values, political change, and technological development. Through songs, Hindi cinema has expressed ideas of love, faith, caste, gender, rebellion, and identity. Playback singing played a crucial role in shaping this musical and cinematic language.

Phase one

Silent era, 1913 to 1930

Mythology and moral storytelling

In the silent era, Hindi cinema did not have recorded sound and music onscreen, but music was still central to the film experience. Live musicians accompanied screenings in cinema halls. Most films were based on mythology and religious stories.  Raja Harishchandra was the first film by Dadasaheb Phalke in 1913, a milestone in Indian cinema history. Even though music was not part of the core cinema, and films were mute during the silent era, external sources of  Music helped audiences emotionally connect with divine characters and moral conflicts. The plot structure during this phase was strongly religious and moral. Caste hierarchy and gender roles were accepted as natural and unquestioned. Women were shown as ideal, pure, and sacrificial figures. Cinema functioned mainly as moral instruction rather than social critique.

Phase two

Talkies and pre-independence cinema, 1931 to 1947

Singing stars and social reform

The arrival of sound cinema changed everything. With Alam Ara in 1931, songs became an inseparable part of films. During this period, songs were recorded live, and actors sang their own. There was no full playback system yet. Music was influenced by Parsi theatre, folk music, devotional traditions, and Hindustani classical music. Orchestration was simple, using harmonium, tabla, dholak, sarangi and flute. Lyrics were poetic, often written in Urdu/Hindi, better known as Hindustani, with influences from Braj, Avadi, and Khadiboli, and a regional touch from Punjab, Rajasthan, and Maharashtra. 

This period gave rise to singing stars. K L Saigal became the most influential male singer-actor. Noor Jehan, Pankaj Mullick, and Kanan Devi were major figures. Composers like R C Boral, Khemchand Prakash, and Saraswati Devi laid the foundation of film music composition.The plot of Hindi cinema expanded beyond mythology. Films like Achhut Kanya addressed caste discrimination and inter-caste love. Duniya Na Mane focused on women’s rights and forced marriage. Cinema slowly began to question social injustice, becoming a voice for independence and social revolution. Music became a vehicle for reformist ideas and emotional persuasion. The First playback concept was driven by Bengali songs from Chandidas (1932), later remade in Hindi in 1934, and finally incorporated into Dhoop Chhao (1935). Lyrics were poetic, devotional and reform-oriented, influenced by Urdu poetry and theatre. Major lyricists: Kidar Sharma, Agha Hashar Kashmiri, Munshi Irshad Hussain. Themes included devotion, suffering, nationalism, caste reform and women’s pain.

Emergence of playback singing

Playback singing emerged gradually during the 1930s and 1940s. The idea came from folk theatre and Parsi theatre, where singers performed backstage while actors lip-synced. Films like Chandidas played an important role in formalising playback singing. Playback singing separated the singing voice from the on-screen actor. This allowed trained singers to focus on vocal excellence and freed composers to be more creative. It also introduced new musical professionalism into cinema. Playback singing changed film music permanently and created a new category of artists. The emerging studios  Bombay Talkies, Prabhat Film Company, and New Theatres also played a significant role in shaping cinema and playback singing during the period. 

Phase three

Golden era, 1947 to early 1960s

Melody, nation building and social faith

After independence, Hindi cinema entered its golden era. The plot of films focused on family values, social reform, moral struggle, and national identity. Films such as Andaz, Awara, Mother India, Pyaasa, Baiju Bawra, Devdas and Mughal-e-Azam defined this period. Playback singing reached its artistic peak. Lata Mangeshkar became the dominant female voice. Mohammed Rafi, Mukesh, Talat Mahmood and Geeta Dutt shaped the male and female vocal landscape. Composers like Naushad, Anil Biswas, Roshan and Madan Mohan integrated Hindustani classical ragas into film songs. Baiju Bawra marked a landmark in classical-based film music. Religion during this phase became more humanistic and ethical rather than ritualistic. Films promoted secular values. Gender representation improved slightly, with women portrayed as emotionally strong but still confined within patriarchal limits. Caste and class issues were explored in films like Do Bigha Zameen and Mother India. Peak of lyrical poetry with social and humanistic depth. Major lyricists: Shailendra, Sahir Ludhianvi, Majrooh Sultanpuri, Shakeel Badayuni. Themes included love, poverty, class struggle, idealism, secular values and moral questioning.

Phase four

1960s

Ghazal phase, culture and musical liberation and emotional refinement

The early 1960s saw the rise of the filmi ghazal. Madan Mohan became the leading composer of ghazals. Singers like Lata Mangeshkar and Talat Mahmood gave voice to poetic introspection. Films such as Woh Kaun Thi, Mere Mehboob, Taj Mahal and Mamta reflected emotional subtlety. The plot focused on inner conflict, romance and longing. However, this refined style soon felt limited as society changed. Refined, introspective and romantic lyrics dominated. Major lyricists: Raja Mehdi Ali Khan, Kaifi Azmi. Themes focused on longing, emotional conflict and poetic expression. With urbanisation and youth culture, Hindi cinema underwent a major shift. The hero transformed into a carefree and expressive figure. Shammi Kapoor symbolised this change. Music became louder, faster and rhythm-driven. Shankar Jaikishan, Mohammed Rafi and Shammi Kapoor created energetic musical expressions. Western influences like rock and jazz entered film music. Gender roles also shifted slightly. Heroines became more expressive and visually liberated. Cinema reflected changing ideas of romance and freedom. It was the era of new hope, a charm of society and the films, music with family drama, love, affection and a kind of social transformation because India was just free from long colonisation and new hope was seen in the film plot and music of the era. 

Phase five 

1970s- 80s

Social rebellion and changing musical priorities

The 1970s were dominated by themes of injustice, anger and rebellion. Films such as Zanjeer, Deewar and Sholay reflected political unrest and social imbalance. Social injustice, moral values, and new hope collapsed due to visionless politics. The social structure of India was once again changed by the rise of Chaudharies and Landlords in politics, and the hope given by independence was slowly disappearing from civil society. The British were replaced by capitalists, so Dialogue and action became more important than songs to revolt against such capitalists; however, revolutionary songs were composed and featured in films during the period. From another angle, Kishore Kumar emerged as the dominant male voice, and His singing style was conversational and emotionally direct. R D Burman became the most influential composer, experimenting with electronic sounds and fusion. Parallel cinema preserved poetic music through films like Aandhi, Parichay and Chhoti Si Baat. Gender issues and class conflicts were addressed more realistically in this space.

Decline of melody and commercial excess

The 1980s are considered a low point for Hindi film music. Formula-based compositions, repetitive rhythms and loud orchestration dominated. Melody and lyrical depth declined. The lyrics were by Anand Bakshi, Gulzar, Majrooh Sultanpuri, and Javeed Akhtar, who wrote for the film.  Some exceptions existed, such as Khayyam’s work and ghazal-based films like Umrao Jaan. However, mainstream cinema largely moved away from musical sophistication. Social issues persisted, but music lost its narrative strength.  

Phase Six 

Late 1980s and 1990s

Romantic revival and musical dominance

Romantic films like Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak and Maine Pyar Kiya revived melody and emotional sincerity. Playback singers such as Udit Narayan and Alka Yagnik emerged. Kumar Sanu, Vinod Rathod, Abhijeet, Sonu Nigam, Sadhana Sargam, Anuradha Padwal, Kavita Krishnamurthy, Luck Ali, and KK were the prominent singers who sang for the film and made the era romantic. The 1990s restored the musical film. Films like Hum Aapke Hain Kaun, Dil, Kuch Kuch Hota Hai and Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge made music central again. Romance, family values and youth culture dominated plots. Gender representation became more expressive, though still idealised. A R Rahman introduced a new musical language that combines melody, technology, and global sound. Lyricists brought poetry back into popular cinema. Jatin-Lalit, Anand-Milind, Nadim-Shravan, and, of course, L.K. Pyarelal, Ravi, Bappi Da, and Ravindra Jain were the music composers who tested something new and later became trends. Lyricists like Sameer, Anand Bakshi, Prasoon Joshi, and Irshad Kamil wrote for the film and made the romantic genre  their own through literature and poetry. 

Phase Seven

2000 onwards

Digital era, realism and spectacle

From the early 2000s onwards, Hindi cinema entered a digital era marked by technological advancement, thematic diversity, and a redefinition of the role of music in films. Unlike earlier decades, where songs often interrupted the narrative, music in this period became closely integrated with the storyline, character psychology, and social context. Songs were increasingly used to advance the plot, establish ideological positions, or deepen emotional realism rather than serving solely as standalone entertainment.

Films such as Lagaan, Rang De Basanti, Rock On, Munna Bhai M.B.B.S. and 3 Idiots demonstrated how music could blend with social awareness, political commentary, youth culture, and urban realism. In these films, songs functioned as narrative tools, expressing protest, friendship, patriotism, inner conflict, and transformation. Music composition during this period was dominated by composers who successfully combined melody with modern technology. A. R. Rahman played a central role in redefining Hindi film music by blending Indian classical sensibility with global sounds, electronic programming, and layered orchestration. His work in Lagaan, Rang De Basanti, and later films demonstrated how music could carry ideological depth as well as emotional resonance. Other important composers such as Shankar–Ehsaan–Loy, Pritam, and Vishal–Shekhar* contributed to the expansion of musical styles, incorporating rock, pop, jazz, and electronic dance music while maintaining narrative relevance. Lyrics in the digital era became more varied in tone and content. Lyricists such as Javed Akhtar, Gulzar, Prasoon Joshi, and Irshad Kamil wrote songs that addressed identity, politics, gender sensitivity, social inequality, and emotional complexity. Lyrics moved fluidly between poetic expression and contemporary language, reflecting urban life as well as regional and cultural diversity.

Playback singing also underwent significant change during this period. Traditional voice-based stardom gave way to versatility and texture. Singers such as Sonu Nigam, Shreya Ghoshal, Sunidhi Chauhan, Shaan, Arijit Singh, and Mohit Chauhan became prominent voices. Playback singing became more character-specific, with singers adapting vocal colour, diction, and emotional delivery to suit particular roles rather than maintaining a single iconic style. Technological innovation played a decisive role in shaping music production. Digital recording, sound layering, auto-tuning, synthesised orchestration, and advanced mixing techniques transformed the soundscape of Hindi cinema. Home studios replaced large recording halls, and background scores gained importance alongside songs. Music also began circulating through digital platforms, changing listening habits and reducing the dominance of film songs as long-term cultural memory. Caste, religion, and politics became more visible and explicit in cinematic narratives during this era. Films such as Article 15, PK, OMG – Oh My God, and The Kashmir Files used music sparingly but purposefully to underline ideological conflict, human suffering, and moral questioning. Music in such films supported narrative realism rather than romantic fantasy. At the same time, large-scale spectacle-driven cinema emerged strongly. Films such as Ra.One, Baahubali, Brahmastra, and Kalki integrated music with visual effects, grand orchestration, and myth-inspired narratives. In these films, background music and theme motifs became as important as songs, enhancing spectacle and emotional scale. In summary, the digital era transformed Hindi film music into a multifaceted narrative element. Music moved beyond melody-driven popularity to become a tool for realism, ideology, spectacle, and emotional depth. Playback singing adapted to character and context, lyric writing reflected contemporary concerns, and technology reshaped production and listening practices. Together, these changes marked a decisive new phase in the journey of the Hindi film song.

Sources: Web, books, and self-analysis of the music. 

Note: The category/phase  is given by the author only for educational purposes after analysing the music and plot of Hindi Cinema 

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Classical to AI Era : Journey of Indian Classical Music

 Music making in India has always been shaped by the balance between creativity, tradition, and technology. In the classical era, whether in the court of a Mughal emperor or the temples of the South, artists faced challenges rooted in rigorous training and systems of patronage. The guru–shishya parampara demanded years of discipline, and performance was inseparable from cultural and spiritual contexts. Memory, oral transmission, and live practice were the only ways to preserve music. The challenge was not just artistic but also structural: access to training was limited, and opportunities for performance depended heavily on social and political support.

The twentieth century introduced microphones, recording, and broadcasting, which transformed how Indian classical and film music reached audiences. Yet these innovations brought their own pressures. The expectation of technical perfection in studio recordings, competition in the rapidly growing film and popular music industry, and the need to adapt to radio and later television altered the very way musicians prepared and performed. While recordings preserved great traditions, they also raised questions of ownership, royalties, and credit. In India, copyright law under the Copyright Act of 1957 sought to protect creators, but enforcement and fair royalty distribution often lagged behind the fast-moving industry.

The twenty-first century and the rise of artificial intelligence have again shifted the ground. AI tools can now generate melodies, mimic instruments, and even approximate raga patterns. This raises new challenges of authenticity, authorship, and cultural integrity. Indian law still places authorship and ownership in human hands, meaning AI outputs cannot easily be protected unless human creativity is clearly involved. Globally too, courts and copyright offices stress that only human contributions qualify for protection. For musicians, the challenge today is to adapt AI as an assistant without losing identity, to ensure datasets respect cultural heritage, and to protect livelihoods in a world where machines can produce vast volumes of sound. In many ways, the essence of the challenge remains what it was centuries ago: safeguarding the human and cultural soul of music while navigating new tools and new economies.

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Thumri of the Banaras Gharana: Tradition, Experimentation, and Transformation

Thumri is one of the most intimate and expressive forms of Hindustani music, a style where melody and emotion are so deeply intertwined that the listener feels transported into the inner world of the singer. Although it has often been described as a semi-classical or “light” genre, this description does not do justice to the depth and subtlety of its expression. Thumri has always been more than a form of entertainment; it is an art that conveys the complexities of love, longing, devotion, joy, and sorrow in a way that bridges the personal and the universal. Within the wider world of Thumri, the Banaras Gharana known also as the Purab Ang or eastern style — has held a distinctive place, preserving folk roots while embracing classical ornamentation, and creating a style that remains at once accessible and profound.

The Banaras tradition grew in the sacred and cultural environment of Varanasi, a city where music, ritual, and everyday life exist in close harmony. In contrast to the Lucknowi style, which flourished under Nawab Wajid Ali Shah as a companion to Kathak dance, Banaras musicians carved out a more independent and introspective approach. Thumri in Banaras stepped outside the courts and reached into temples, festivals, and local gatherings. It became part of the shared voice of the people, even while retaining its classical base. The Purab Ang is characterised by its preference for bol-banav, where words are repeated, stretched, and coloured with ornamentation to draw out emotional meaning. Through this method, even a simple phrase could be expanded into a long, meditative journey, reflecting the depth of human feeling.

The poetry of Banaras Thumri has always been central to its charm. Sung in dialects like Awadhi, Braj Bhasha, and Bhojpuri, the language connects directly to everyday speech. Unlike the ornate and courtly style of some other genres, the lyrics of Thumri are conversational, simple, and often intimate, describing the pangs of separation, the sweetness of union, or the playful quarrels of lovers. Many compositions use imagery from the tales of Radha and Krishna, but the emotional resonance goes beyond religious symbolism and touches universal human experience. The flexibility of the words allows singers to reinvent them each time, giving the impression of a personal conversation with the listener.

Musically, Banaras Thumri thrives on freedom. The ragas commonly chosen:  Khamaj, Pilu, Kafi, Bhairavi, Jhijhoti; are light enough to allow improvisation but rich enough to carry deep expression. The talas most often used, such as Dadra, Deepchandi, Keharwa, and Punjabi, create structures that support both playful and serious moods. Singers of Banaras also excel in bol-bant, breaking words rhythmically in dialogue with the tabla, producing a dynamic and dramatic effect. The relationship with Kathak dance remains, not as direct accompaniment but as a shared aesthetic: the gestures and phrasing in music often mirror the grace of dance movements, reminding us of the interwoven cultural fabric from which Thumri emerged.

At the centre of the Banaras style is the belief that music succeeds only when it touches the heart. Thumri does not aim to dazzle through speed or display; it aims to create an atmosphere where listeners feel emotions unfolding within themselves. The emphasis on bhava, or emotional essence, gave Banaras Thumri its enduring appeal. In a performance, a single phrase such as “kaise jaaun” could be repeated and elaborated in countless ways hesitant at first, playful later, mournful in another turn each time bringing new colours to the same words. This attention to subtlety is what makes Banaras Thumri both deeply personal and universally moving.

The tradition also shows remarkable adaptability. While early Thumris were dominated by romantic and erotic sentiment, Banaras artists broadened the scope to include devotion, spiritual longing, and even philosophical reflection. The repertoire drew generously from folk songs of Bhojpuri and Awadhi, making the music instantly relatable to rural and urban audiences alike. At the same time, classical ragas were used with flexibility, allowing improvisations that blurred the lines between strict shastriya tradition and folk spontaneity. In the twentieth century, with the advent of radio, recordings, and stage performance, Banaras Thumri reached wider audiences. It was not confined to small gatherings but found a place in public concerts and festivals, adapting smoothly to changing times without losing its intimacy.

Much of the recognition of Banaras Thumri is owed to its great exponents. Badi Motibai, with her deep, resonant style, gave the genre both weight and grace, while Chhoti Motibai brought her own delicacy and subtlety to the form. Rasoolan Bai became a household name with her earthy and emotionally charged renditions that carried the flavour of Bhojpuri folk into the classical sphere. Siddheshwari Devi added depth and refinement, shaping Banaras Thumri into a sophisticated art that could stand alongside khayal and dhrupad in seriousness. Gauhar Jaan, one of the first recording artists of India, also lent her voice to Thumri, ensuring that its charm reached beyond live mehfils into recorded history. Male singers like Moinuddin Khan, Mahadev Prasad Mishra, Bhawani Sewak Mishra, Gopal Mishra, Surendra Mohan Mishra 'Mohan Ji' and Rajeshwar Mishra carried the tradition with equal passion, proving that Thumri was not limited to female voices but was an art that belonged to all. Together, these artists created a legacy that allowed Banaras Thumri to flourish as a living tradition rather than a relic of the past.

Today, Banaras Thumri continues to inspire. Contemporary vocalists keep the form alive in their repertoires, treating it not as a secondary piece after khayal but as a vital and central expression. Its melodic patterns and emotional content have influenced cinema and popular music, where traces of Thumri can still be heard in film songs and ghazals. Institutions and cultural programs in Varanasi and across India regularly celebrate this tradition, while younger musicians are trained not only in its technical details but also in its cultural background. This training ensures that Thumri remains vibrant, connected to its roots, and open to reinvention.

What makes Banaras Thumri significant is its ability to balance continuity with change. It has absorbed elements from folk, classical, devotional, and even popular culture, yet its essence intimacy, emotion, and connection has never been lost. Its journey from the courts of Lucknow to the temples and streets of Banaras, from intimate gatherings to the modern stage, illustrates the resilience and adaptability of Indian music. It is timeless in its themes of love and devotion, and contemporary in its openness to innovation.

In the end, Thumri of the Banaras Gharana is more than a genre; it is a cultural reflection of Indian life. It carries within it the laughter of festivals, the sorrow of separation, the devotion of temples, and the intimacy of personal expression. By preserving its folk foundations while enriching itself with classical artistry, Banaras Thumri has remained one of the most humanistic forms of Hindustani music. It is a reminder that music’s greatest power lies not in perfection but in feeling. As long as people seek to express love, longing, and devotion, the Thumri of Banaras will continue to resonate  bridging past and present, tradition and innovation, singer and listener.

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Vocal Impurities and Remedies in Indian Classical Music- Part II

In Indian classical music, the voice is the primary instrument of expression, demanding precise control and a healthy vocal mechanism. However, vocal impurities—ranging from tonal inconsistencies to physical fatigue—can hinder a singer’s ability to perform optimally. Understanding these vocal disorders and their causes is essential for any vocalist seeking mastery. While some voice problems arise from physiological conditions requiring medical attention, many functional disorders can be corrected through dedicated vocal training and remedial exercises. This article explores common vocal impurities such as throatiness, unsteadiness, breathiness, breaks in voice registers, voice fatigue, and thinness of tone, along with their causes and effective remedies rooted in the tradition and science of vocal pedagogy Breathiness

Cause:

Breathiness, or a weak airy tone, results from the incomplete closure of the arytenoid cartilages. This allows unmodulated air to leak through the larynx, creating a frictional noise alongside the tone. It may also stem from excessive airflow through the vocal cords or be linked to either functional misuse or organic conditions.

Cure:

If not caused by a structural issue in the larynx, certain exercises can help:

• Humming exercises make the soft palate supple and encourage resonance through the nasopharynx, preventing hissing airflow.
• Soft staccato exercises on the vowel “Ah” train the singer to regulate exhalation. Singing short, light notes helps control breath flow and reduce air wastage.

Break in Voice-Registers

Cause:

A ‘break’ or discontinuity in voice quality during transitions between vocal registers typically arises from incorrect breathing and improper use of resonance. Singers often force their voice while attempting high notes, leading to this disruption.

Cure:

The adoption of diaphragmatic breathing is essential. Inhalation should involve wide expansion of the lower ribs and a full descent of the diaphragm, increasing breath capacity. During exhalation, the diaphragm gradually ascends as the abdominal muscles contract, while the ribs slowly contract due to intra-abdominal pressure. This process strengthens muscular control, allowing the singer to manage breath efficiently.

Moreover, the resonators used for lower tones should not be forced during higher notes and vice versa. Occasionally, adopting a lighter vocal mechanism slightly below the highest required pitch can help achieve smooth register transitions and consistent voice quality.

Voice Fatigue

Cause:

Voice fatigue, also known as ‘Phonasthenia,’ may result from physical or functional issues. Overworking the laryngeal muscles causes them to tire, resulting in a thin, unstable voice that often slips to a lower pitch. Additional causes include poor breath control, tongue interference, and singing at an unsuitable pitch level.

Cure:

Breath control exercises are key:

 Exercise I: Inhale and exhale slowly and steadily through the nose.

 Exercise II: Inhale quickly, then exhale slowly through both mouth and nose for eight seconds, gradually increasing to sixteen seconds.

 Exercise III: Deeply inhale, place hands on the diaphragm, exhale slowly while gently pressing to expel air fully. Repeat several times. 

   Exercise IV: Vocalize the vowel “Ah” on an easy pitch, sustaining the note until discomfort, then switch to humming on the same pitch. Increase vocalization duration gradually.

 Exercise V: Using a tape measure around the 6th and 7th ribs or near the breastbone arch, take a deep breath expanding the chest by one and a half inches beyond normal, then sustain notes on “Ah” without shaking until breath capacity is exhausted.

Unsuitable pitch levels force the laryngeal muscles to strain. Every individual has a natural pitch level, or sadja, where the voice can be produced effortlessly and with best quality. To find this key-note, descend the scale to your lowest audible note, then sing the madhyama (middle note) from there; this note is your ideal pitch.

Relaxing the mylohyoid muscle and flattening the tongue base can remove tongue interference. If fatigue stems from muscle overwork, complete vocal rest for 24 hours is crucial.

Thin or Feeble Voice

Cause:

This disorder may be organic or functional. Congestion in the throat and mouth cavities from respiratory infections reduces resonance. Enlarged tonsils and adenoids can block the throat passage, lowering voice volume. Functionally, incorrect resonance, improper breathing, and unsuitable pitch selection contribute to a weak voice.

Cure:

Resonating cavities must not be compressed. Jaw muscles should remain relaxed, and air must flow freely through the resonators. The tongue should move easily within the mouth while the jaw stays relaxed. The mylohyoid muscle at the tongue base should be completely relaxed, and the larynx should avoid pressing against the hyoid bone. True resonance is achieved through, not with, the throat.

Good breathing habits must be cultivated, and the choice of shadja (key-note) greatly influences voice quality. Richness in voice results from harmonics aligning with vocal formants.

In recent decades, many Indian classical singers have lowered their shadja (key-note), often to accommodate microphone use, resulting in thinner voices. Historically, singers preferred higher key-notes such as D or above, producing richer, more powerful tones. Singers are therefore encouraged to find and use their correct Adharashadja to best showcase their vocal qualities.

Note : The article is based on the book by Prof. SAK Durga " Voice Culture - The Art of Voice Cultivation" 

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Vocal Impurities and Remedies in Indian Classical Music- Part I

 

In the domain of Indian classical music, voice disorders significantly affect a singer's tonal quality and performance. These disorders are broadly classified into two categories: Organic and Functional. Organic disorders involve physiological abnormalities in the vocal apparatus and necessitate medical attention. Functional disorders, however, pertain to how the vocal mechanism is used and should be addressed by a trained vocal pedagogue.

Common functional voice disorders include:
(a) Throatiness
(b) Unsteadiness
(c) Breathiness
(d) Breaks in voice registers
(e) Voice fatigue
(f) Thin or feeble voice
(g) White tone
(h) Nasality
(i) Huskiness
(j) Hoarseness
(k) Register weakness
(l) Uneven voice

These defects can be corrected through accurate diagnosis and appropriate remedial training. As noted by M.M. Babcock:
"Vocal culture is an individual matter, and the methods of treatment of the voice must be as carefully differentiated according to the needs of the individual as the methods of treatment of any other bodily ailment."

A. Throatiness

Cause:
Throatiness occurs due to excessive tension in the jaw, neck, and chest muscles, which interferes with the optimal functioning of the laryngeal muscles. In this condition, singers often forcefully squeeze the larynx between the jaw and neck muscles to approximate the vocal cords, resulting in a constricted and muffled tone.
Improper tongue posture and tension in its muscles also contribute, as does the raising of the larynx against the hyoid bone or the contraction of swallowing muscles during phonation.

Cure:
To alleviate this tension, begin by relaxing the jaw muscles. Lower the head slightly with the chin tucked inward. Gently move the head side-to-side and let the jaw drop down and back. This relieves tension in the jaw and neck. Yawning with a closed mouth helps lift the soft palate and open the throat passage, further relaxing the laryngeal region.

The tongue should rest flat with its tip touching the lower gum ridge; the base of the tongue must be pulled forward to avoid constriction. Correct breathing—especially avoiding the use of swallowing muscles to close the glottis—is essential. The larynx must stay freely lowered, while the hyoid bone remains elevated, maintaining adequate space between the two.

B. Unsteadiness

Cause:
An unsteady or wobbling voice arises from poor breathing habits and psychological factors such as nervousness or self-consciousness. Using swallowing muscles to close the glottis, having a jumpy jaw, or a trembling tongue also contributes to vocal instability. As V.E. Negus notes in The Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Larynx, effective air control relies on a combined lower thoracic and diaphragmatic mechanism.

Cure:
Adopt diaphragmatic breathing to control airflow evenly. This approach prevents tension in the chest and throat and avoids the downward pull of abdominal muscles. Ensure the jaw is tension-free, and relax the mylohyoid muscle at the tongue’s base to prevent quivering. Singing softly within a comfortable pitch range also aids in developing steadiness. Lastly, overcoming mental blocks such as fear or self-consciousness requires dedicated focus on the music itself, shifting attention away from the singer and onto the performance.

Note : The article is based on the book by Prof. SAK Durga " Voice Culture - The Art of Voice Cultivation" 

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Ragaang : An Unique Perspective of Hindustani Classical Music

In Hindustani classical music, the concept of Ragang plays a pivotal role. Derived from the words "Raag" and "Ang," where Raag signifies a melodic framework that evokes a specific mood or emotion, and Ang means a part or characteristic, Ragang refers to a distinctive pattern of notes or musical phrases that shape the identity of a Raag. In essence, when a set of characteristic notes (usually two or three) from one Raag is incorporated into another, it is called Ragang. This technique enriches the Raag by blending its traditional structure with influences from another.

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The use of Ragang is especially significant in the creation of new Raags. The earliest mention of this concept can be found in the ancient text Brihaddeshi, written by Matanga Muni, where he discusses Desi and Gram Raags, along with related concepts like Ragang, Bhashang, and Kriyāng. According to Matanga Muni, Raags that carry the essence or influence of Gram Raags are termed Ragang Raags.

The renowned musicologist Pt. Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande adopted this method of classifying Raags, which he detailed in his book  Bhatkhande Sangeet Shastra. Bhatkhande explained that Raags are identified and categorized based on their dominant notes. For instance, in Raag Asavari, the characteristic notes in the Purvanga (lower tetrachord) are Re, Ma, and Pa, while in the Uttaranga (upper tetrachord) they are Ma, Pa, Dha, and Sa. This distinctive note pattern gives Asavari its unique identity, and when this pattern is used in other Raags, it is known as Asavari Ang.

Contributing to this classification, musicologist Pt. Narayanrao Moreshwar Khare identified 30 key Ragang Raags, which have played a crucial role in shaping the landscape of Hindustani classical music. He also highlighted various Angs(distinctive patterns) from different Thaats (parent scales) such as Sarang, Dhansari, Malhar, and Kanhada. These are listed below:

Ragang Raags and Their Characteristics:

1. Bhairav – 
2. Bilawal – 
3. Kalyan – 
4. Khamaj – 
5. Kafi – 
6. Purvi – 
7. Marwa – 
8. Todi – 
9. Bhairavi – 
10. Sarang – 
11. Dhansari – 
12. Lalit – 
13. Sohni – 
14. Pilu – 
15. Nat – 
16. Shree – 
17. Bageshree – 
18. Kaus – 
19. Kedar – 
20. Shankara – 
21. Asavari – 
22. Kanhada – 
23. Malhar – 
24. Hindol – 
25. Sorath
26. Bihag – 
27. Kamod – 
28. Bhatyar – 
29. Des
30. Bimpalasi – 

These Ragang Raags, with their unique note combinations and patterns, continue to play a foundational role in the evolution and creativity within Hindustani classical music, offering a rich interplay of tradition and innovation. 

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