Is Research in Music Essential to Indian Classical Music

 

Indian classical music has developed over centuries of practice, observation, philosophical thought, and knowledge passed from one generation to the next. Its richness lies not only in performance, but also in the ideas, experiences, and intellectual efforts that have shaped it. As someone who has studied, performed, taught, and researched music, I believe that we need to think seriously about the purpose of research in Indian classical music. The question is not whether Indian music needs research. It certainly does. The more important question is whether we are conducting meaningful research or treating it simply as a way to obtain a PhD, qualify for a job, or fulfil an academic requirement.

Research is more than a doctoral degree

I often wonder why we sometimes question the need for research in Indian classical music. If music is considered a practical discipline, why do we offer undergraduate and postgraduate programmes in it? These programmes recognise that music involves theoretical knowledge, intellectual understanding, historical study, and practical training. Students study ragas, talas, aesthetics, musical treatises, performance traditions, and the relationship between theory and practice. If these areas deserve systematic study at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels, why should doctoral research in music be considered less important?

A practical discipline can have a strong research foundation. In fact, practical experience often raises questions that require deeper investigation. A student may learn to sing a raga correctly but still struggle to understand the finer details of its intonation. A performer may practise for years and gradually discover new ways to approach a melodic phrase. A teacher may notice that students repeatedly struggle to understand swara, shruti, or raga grammar. These experiences can become the starting point for serious research.

A PhD should not be treated merely as a qualification. Its purpose is to deepen understanding of a subject and contribute something meaningful to existing knowledge. A doctoral degree has value when the research behind it demonstrates originality, careful investigation, and a genuine contribution to the field.

Research requires honesty and academic responsibility

I believe music research must meet appropriate academic standards and ethical values. A thesis should not become a collection of borrowed ideas or previously published material presented as new knowledge. Copying existing work, neglecting proper references, or producing a thesis merely to obtain a degree defeats the purpose of research. Universities have an important role in maintaining these standards. Students need guidance in selecting research questions, reviewing existing literature, choosing appropriate methods, analysing evidence, and presenting their findings honestly. Supervisors must help students understand that research requires patience, independent thinking, and intellectual responsibility.

A doctoral degree may improve professional opportunities, but it should not be the only motivation for undertaking research. The researcher must also be willing to question existing explanations, acknowledge limitations, and contribute new understanding. The real value of a thesis lies in what it adds to the subject, not simply in its completion.

Indian classical music has a long history of research

Research is not new to Indian music. Its history provides many examples of scholars who examined musical concepts, organised knowledge, and developed theories that influenced subsequent generations. Bharata's work on rasa and bhava remains important to the study of Indian aesthetics and performance. Dattilam discusses musical concepts associated with jati and early systems of musical organisation. Matanga's Brihaddeshi is a key text in the historical development of raga. Sharngadeva's Sangita Ratnakara preserves extensive knowledge of music and musical forms. Scholars such as Vidhyaranya and Venkatamakhin also contributed to mela classification and a systematic understanding of melodic structures. 

Pt. Lochan's Raga Tarangini contains notable work on janaka-janya ragas. Pt. Damodar, in his book Sangit Darpan, discussed raga classification and Ragamala paintings. Pt. Srinivas, through Raga Tattva Vibodh, also contributed to the analysis of scales, swar, and shruti. He also analysed the swar positions on the 36-string veena taar established by Pt. Ahobala. He precisely calculated and fixed the veena strings’ physical lengths to determine the exact positions of tivra and komal swaras. His work helped standardise note intervals as Hindustani music moved away from its medieval structures. Pt. Ahobala's Sangeet Parijat first mapped swar and shruti on a veena's strings. Pt. Ramamatya wrote Svaramela Kalanidhi and was among the first scholars to discuss mela and melakarta raga classification. Pt. Pundarika Vitthala made notable contributions to the mathematical categorisation of ragas in South Indian music, a practice that continues today. Hridayanarayana Deva's Hridayakautuka and Hridayaprakasha adopted Ahobala's physics-based approach to musical notes and regrouped Northern ragas into a more unified scale matrix. Maharaja Tulaja I made a major contribution through his book Sangita Saramritam. Written during the golden age of Thanjavur, this work meticulously documented the existing repertoire, ragas, and performance nuances practised just before the arrival of the legendary Carnatic Musical Trinity. Mohammad Raza's Naghmat-i-Asafi boldly criticised older classification systems as outdated and impractical. He declared the Bilawal scale the standard natural scale (shuddha thaat) for Hindustani music, a foundational principle still practised.

Apart from these scholars, Somanatha, through his book Raga Vibodha, attempted to bridge the musical practices of North and South India. He was among the first to introduce a notation system for instrumental gamakas, using specific symbols to describe how a note should be plucked, shaken, or glided on the veena. In the late eighteenth century, Govindacharya contributed through his book Sangraha Chudamani. While Venkatamakhi developed the mathematical concept of the 72-melakarta scale system, Govindacharya modified it through the Kanaka-Ambari nomenclature. He institutionalised the sampurna raga structure, comprising scales with all seven notes in both ascent and descent, which Saint Tyagaraja and modern Carnatic musicians used. Subbarama Dikshitar's Sangita Sampradaya Pradarsini, published in 1904, is a monumental work preserving eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Carnatic music. It includes detailed biographies of past masters and highly detailed notation for hundreds of compositions by the Musical Trinity, particularly Muthuswami Dikshitar, with intricate symbols indicating performance techniques.

These scholars’ work shows that Indian music has a strong intellectual history alongside its performance traditions. Over many generations, scholars have examined and discussed questions concerning raga classification, swara, shruti, tala, musical forms, and aesthetic experience. These contributions should inspire contemporary researchers to investigate musical knowledge more deeply. Our responsibility is not merely to repeat what earlier scholars wrote. We should examine their ideas, understand the historical circumstances in which they developed, compare theory with actual performance, and investigate questions that remain open to further study.

A tradition becomes intellectually stronger when each generation contributes to the knowledge it inherits.

Performance itself can generate new knowledge

When we discuss research, we often think immediately of a thesis, a research paper, or a book. However, musical exploration can also lead to important discoveries. Consider the contributions of Pandit Ravi Shankar, Ustad Allauddin Khan, Ustad Faiyaz Khan, and Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan. Their work represents different approaches to musical interpretation, improvisation, and the development of performance traditions. Pandit Ravi Shankar and Ustad Allauddin Khan are also associated with creating or developing new ragas.

Similarly, Ustad Abdul Karim Khan, Pandit Bhimsen Joshi, Ustad Bismillah Khan, Pandit Rajan and Pandit Sajan Mishra, Vidushi Kishori Amonkar, Vidushi Kesarbai Kerkar, Vidushi M. S. Subbulakshmi, Vidushi Gangubai Hangal, the Dagar brothers, the Gundecha brothers, and Pandit Uday Bhawalkar have made distinctive contributions to Indian classical music.  Other musicologists and composers who contributed significantly to Indian classical music through research, bandish composition, methodology, and numerous compositions include Purandaradas, Shyama Shastri, and Tyagaraja. Over the past hundred years, Pt. Bhatkhande, Pt. Paluskar, Pt. Ramashraya Jha, Pt. Omkarnath Thakur, C. R. Vyas, V. R. Patwardhan, Ustad Vilayat Khan, Ustad Zakir Hussain, and many others have contributed to Indian classical music. The development of thumri, Kathak and the Laya also reflects the contributions of Wajid Ali Shah, Pt. Birju Maharaj, Pt. Kishan Maharaj, Pt. Samta Prasad Mishra, Kanthe Maharaj, Girija Devi, and Sitara Devi and many more. Their achievements remind us that musical knowledge develops through years of disciplined practice, listening, experimentation, reflection, and performance. Each artist develops a particular understanding of a raga and finds ways to express its depth through swara, shruti, melodic movement, ornamentation, and aesthetic interpretation.

A musician may explore a raga for decades and keep discovering new possibilities in its presentation. Such exploration may not always take the form of formal academic research, but it can provide valuable material for scholarly investigation. We should therefore encourage research that brings practical musical experience into academic discussion. Recording a senior musician's interpretation, studying differences between performances, or examining how a particular gharana approaches a raga can preserve knowledge and help others understand the depth of musical practice.

Connecting traditional knowledge with modern research

Indian classical music contains layers of philosophical, aesthetic, and practical knowledge. Contemporary research methods can help us investigate these dimensions while respecting their cultural context.

For example, the study of swara and shruti connects to acoustics and auditory perception. Researchers can examine how musicians produce and recognise subtle pitch differences and how these differences function within specific ragas. Comparative studies can investigate how different artists approach the same raga and identify the musical features that distinguish their performances. At the same time, we must recognise that pitch measurements alone cannot capture a raga. Its identity also depends on melodic movement, phrase structure, ornamentation, musical context, and aesthetic expression. Scientific methods can help us understand certain aspects of music, but they cannot replace an experienced musician's practical knowledge.

Indian music also offers opportunities for research in psychology, anthropology, philosophy, cultural studies, and education. Its relationship with devotion, meditation, emotional expression, and healing deserves serious investigation. When researchers claim therapeutic effects, they should examine those claims with appropriate evidence and methods. Such interdisciplinary work can expand our understanding of music and connect traditional knowledge with contemporary questions.

Universities must connect scholarship with traditional practice

Universities have a responsibility to create an environment in which meaningful research can develop. This requires a well-designed curriculum, appropriate research guidance, ethical standards, and faculty members with strong academic backgrounds. At the same time, universities should recognise the knowledge of traditional artists and experienced performers. An academically qualified researcher and a musician trained through years of traditional practice may bring different forms of expertise to the same question. Together, their combined understanding can produce richer research.

Music departments should encourage projects involving performance analysis, historical documentation, oral traditions, raga studies, music pedagogy, and interdisciplinary investigation. They should also give students opportunities to learn research methods alongside their practical training. The aim should be to bridge the distance between scholarly knowledge and traditional practice. Research must remain connected with the music itself rather than becoming an activity limited to writing and publishing.

Research can improve teaching and performance

Research can help teachers understand how students learn and why certain musical concepts are difficult to master. It can investigate the role of listening, repetition, imitation, feedback, voice training, and independent practice in developing musical ability. For example, a study of riyaz could examine how students develop pitch accuracy and how they learn to recognise the distinctive treatment of swaras in different ragas. Research into teaching methods could identify approaches that support musical understanding and encourage creativity.

Technology offers further opportunities. Digital recording, audio analysis, and artificial intelligence may assist students during independent practice. However, research is needed to understand their actual benefits and limitations. A tool that identifies a pitch does not necessarily teach a student the note's musical role within a raga. Carefully designed studies can help teachers decide where technology is useful and where personal guidance remains essential.

Research can therefore support both musical practice and better teaching methods.

We need the right kind of research

We often ask what research contributes to music or whether it is really necessary. In my view, this question reflects a limited understanding of research itself. Progress in medicine, space exploration, technology, and other fields has depended on people asking questions, testing explanations, examining evidence, and searching for solutions. Music research has its own purposes and methods, but the basic intention is similar. It seeks to understand what is already known, identify what remains unexplored, and investigate new possibilities.

Not every research project will lead to a major discovery. Some studies clarify existing knowledge, document a practice, or identify questions that require further investigation. These contributions are worthwhile when researchers conduct the work carefully and present their findings honestly. The same principle applies to Indian classical music. Research may lead to a better understanding of raga characteristics, the documentation of an oral tradition, improved teaching methods, or a fresh interpretation of historical musical theory. Its significance depends on the question being investigated and the contribution made.

Conclusion

I believe research in Indian classical music is essential, but it must be meaningful, ethical, and grounded in actual musical knowledge. We do not need research merely to increase the number of doctoral degrees. We need research that helps us understand the music more deeply, preserve its knowledge, improve its teaching, and discover possibilities for its future. Indian classical music already possesses a remarkable history of intellectual inquiry and artistic exploration. Our responsibility is to carry this tradition forward through careful scholarship and serious engagement with musical practice.

Research is not simply about writing a thesis or publishing a paper. It begins with a question, develops through investigation, and seeks an answer that contributes to our understanding. Sometimes it leads to a new interpretation, sometimes to a clearer explanation, and sometimes to further questions. The important issue is not whether Indian classical music needs research. The question is whether we are prepared to conduct research with the seriousness, curiosity, and integrity the tradition deserves.

 

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Is Lok Geet Still Folk Music? A Changing Cultural Identity in Purvanchal and Western Bihar

 

Introduction

The Bhojpuri-speaking region of South Asia, including Purvanchal in eastern Uttar Pradesh and western Bihar, has one of the richest folk music traditions in India. For centuries, folk songs, or Lok Geet, have been an important part of social and cultural life. They accompanied every stage of life, from birth to death, and reflected the customs, language, beliefs, and emotions of the people. Songs such as Sohar, Kajri, Chaiti, Birha, Nirgun, Pachra, Purbi, Bidesia, and various Sanskar Lok Geet were created and preserved by local communities rather than by professional musicians. Today, however, the cultural environment in which these songs developed has changed significantly. This raises an important question. Can the music that is currently marketed as Bhojpuri folk music still be considered traditional Lok Geet?

From Community Tradition to Commercial Production

Traditionally, Lok Geet were not written for commercial success. They were created collectively and transmitted orally from one generation to another. There was no individual composer, no recording studio, and no copyright. Every village had its own musical variations, and songs changed naturally over time through community participation. During the last fifty years, this system has changed. The cassette industry of the 1980s introduced Bhojpuri music into commercial markets. Later, compact discs, television, and digital media expanded its audience. Today, YouTube, streaming platforms, and social media have transformed Bhojpuri music into a large entertainment industry with millions of listeners. This development has increased the visibility of Bhojpuri music, but it has also changed the way it is created. A large proportion of songs labelled as "folk" are now written by professional lyricists, composed in studios, programmed with electronic instruments, and produced for commercial distribution. These songs often borrow melodies, language, and themes from traditional Lok Geet, but their purpose is primarily commercial rather than cultural.

Why Has This Change Happened?

Several social changes have contributed to this transformation.

Rapid urbanisation has changed the social structure of villages. According to the Census of India, the urban population has increased steadily during the last four decades, while migration from eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar has become one of the largest internal migration movements in the country. At the same time, agriculture has declined as the main source of livelihood, and many rural families have shifted towards employment in the industrial and service sectors. These changes have reduced opportunities for collective singing during agricultural work, seasonal festivals, and family ceremonies. Joint families have gradually been replaced by nuclear families, and many traditional ceremonies now rely on recorded music or DJs instead of live performances by community members.

The spread of mobile phones, internet access, and digital entertainment has further changed listening habits. Young people are more likely to discover Bhojpuri music through online platforms than through family traditions.

The Present Condition of Lok Geet

Traditional Lok Geet have not completely disappeared, but their role has changed. Authentic Sohar, Kajri, Chaiti, Nirgun, and Sanskar Lok Geet can still be heard in some villages and among Bhojpuri diaspora communities. However, they now represent only a small part of the larger Bhojpuri music industry. Many of today's commercially successful songs are inspired by folk traditions but cannot be fully described as traditional folk music. Their creation, ownership, production, and distribution follow the structure of the modern music industry rather than the traditional community-based system. Therefore, it may be more appropriate to describe much of today's music as commercial folk-inspired music or regional popular music, rather than traditional Lok Geet.

Challenges for Artists and Cultural Heritage

Another important concern is the condition of traditional folk artists. Many village singers continue to face financial hardship and often depend on agriculture or daily-wage work for their livelihoods. At the same time, commercially adapted versions of traditional songs generate significant income for production companies and digital platforms, while the original custodians of these traditions receive little recognition or financial benefit. Traditional musical instruments are also becoming rare. Instruments that once formed an essential part of Bhojpuri folk performances are increasingly replaced by electronic keyboards, digital percussion, and computer-generated sounds. Instrument makers and repair artisans are gradually disappearing due to limited demand for their skills. Research and documentation remain inadequate. Compared with Indian classical music, there are very few systematic archives, musical transcriptions, field recordings, or long-term research projects dedicated to the Lok Geet traditions of Purvanchal and western Bihar. As a result, many songs survive only in the memories of elderly performers.

Why Do Lok Geet Still Matter?

The value of Lok Geet extends far beyond music. They preserve the Bhojpuri language, regional history, social values, women's experiences, agricultural traditions, and local knowledge. They are important sources for understanding the cultural identity of the Bhojpuri-speaking region. If these songs disappear, an important part of the region's intangible cultural heritage will also be lost. Recording songs in digital formats is important, but documentation alone cannot preserve a living tradition. Lok Geet survive only when they continue to be sung within families and communities.

Conclusion

The question is not whether Bhojpuri Lok Geet should change. Every living tradition evolves with time. The real issue is whether these songs continue to represent the cultural life of the communities that created them. Today, much of what is marketed as Bhojpuri folk music is better understood as commercially produced music inspired by folk traditions. At the same time, authentic Lok Geet continue to survive in limited social spaces where community participation remains active. The future of Bhojpuri musical heritage depends on documentation, research, community participation, support for traditional artists, preservation of indigenous musical instruments, and cultural policies that encourage intergenerational transmission. Without these efforts, the Bhojpuri-speaking region may continue to produce successful commercial music while gradually losing one of its most valuable cultural traditions

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Purvanchal Ke Sanskar geet : Music, Culture, and the Identity

Purvanchal is known not only for its rich history, sacred geography, and vibrant languages but also for its remarkable folk traditions. Among these traditions, folk songs occupy a special place because they preserve the emotions, beliefs, customs, and everyday experiences of the people. These songs are more than musical performances. They are living expressions of community life and cultural identity that have been passed from one generation to another through oral tradition. Music has always been an essential part of life in Purvanchal. Every important occasion, whether joyful or emotional, is accompanied by singing. Through these songs, communities celebrate birth, marriage, festivals, seasons, agricultural activities, and even moments of loss. Folk music, therefore, reflects the rhythm of life itself and continues to shape the region's cultural identity.

The Rich Tradition of Folk Songs in Purvanchal

The folk music tradition of Purvanchal is broad and diverse. Different songs are performed according to the occasion, season, occupation, and stage of life. Some of the major forms include Kajri, Chaiti, Hori, Birha, Purbi, Jhumar, Barahmasa, Alha, Sohar, Vivaah Geet, Kajli, Nirgun, Bhajan, Devi Geet, and Sanskar Geet. Each form represents a different aspect of social and cultural life. Seasonal songs such as Kajri and Chaiti celebrate changes in nature and the agricultural cycle. Hori is associated with the festival of Holi, while Birha expresses separation and longing. Nirgun and Bhajan reflect spiritual devotion, whereas Devi Geet are sung during religious ceremonies dedicated to local and Hindu deities. Among all these traditions, Sanskar Geet occupy a unique position because they accompany the important milestones of human life.

What Are Sanskar Geets

Sanskar Songs are traditional songs performed during various life-cycle ceremonies. They transform religious rituals into shared cultural experiences by bringing together family members, relatives, neighbours, and the wider community. Rather than being formal performances, these songs are sung collectively and naturally as part of everyday social life. The tradition begins with the birth of a child and continues through different stages of life until death. Every important ceremony has its own musical identity, making Sanskar Songs an inseparable part of the cultural life of Purvanchal. These songs preserve not only melodies but also memories, relationships, values, and local knowledge that have been passed down through generations.

Major Types of Sanskar Geet

The journey of Sanskar Geet begins with Sohar, which is sung to celebrate a child’s birth. These songs express happiness, gratitude, blessings, and hopes for the newborn's future. Closely related to Sohar is Badhai Geet, which celebrates the arrival of a new member of the family through joyful singing and playful interaction. The Mundan ceremony is accompanied by songs that bless the child with health, prosperity, and a bright future. Similarly, the Janeu or Yajnopavita ceremony includes songs that emphasise learning, discipline, knowledge, and social responsibility.

Marriage is the richest stage in the Sanskar tradition and encompasses numerous song forms performed across various rituals. These include Mangal Geet, Devi Geet, Sagun, Tilak Geet, Haldi Geet, Matkor, Madwa, Lava, Sindurdan, Kohbar, Chumawan, Parichhan, Imli Ghotai, Manar Pujai, Vidai Geet, and later Gauna Geet. Each reflects a different emotional and ceremonial moment, ranging from celebration and humour to affection, blessings, and farewell. Certain devotional songs and ritual laments are associated with death ceremonies. These compositions help families express grief while also conveying the belief that life continues beyond physical existence.

Music That Connects Communities

One of the most remarkable features of Purvanchal Sanskar Geet is their musical simplicity. Their melodies are easy to sing, allowing people of all ages to participate. Most songs are performed collectively, with one experienced singer leading while others respond together. This style creates a sense of unity and strengthens social relationships. Traditional rhythmic patterns such as Keharwa, Dadra, and Deepchandi are commonly heard in these songs. Musical accompaniment is generally limited to Dholak, Manjira, and hand clapping, ensuring that the focus remains on collective participation rather than technical performance. In these traditions, emotional expression is valued more than musical perfection.

The Voice of Culture and Identity

Sanskar Geet are much more than ritual music. They preserve the cultural identity of Purvanchal by documenting the region's customs, beliefs, language, and values. Through these songs, people learn about family relationships, respect for elders, community cooperation, and the importance of shared traditions. The songs also preserve Bhojpuri and other regional dialects, which carry local expressions and cultural meanings that cannot easily be translated into other languages. They serve as a living archive of oral literature and demonstrate how music helps preserve language and identity together.

Women have played the central role in keeping this tradition alive. For centuries, mothers, grandmothers, and elderly women have passed these songs to younger generations through participation rather than formal teaching. Their voices preserve family history, emotional experiences, and social knowledge that often remain absent from written records. In this way, Sanskar Geet also represent an important archive of women's cultural heritage.

Challenges in the Modern World

Like many oral traditions, Sanskar Geet face several challenges today. The growth of nuclear families has reduced opportunities for younger generations to learn songs from elders. Urbanisation and migration have changed family life, while recorded music and DJs have replaced traditional singing in many ceremonies. The declining use of regional languages has further weakened the connection between young people and their musical heritage. Despite these challenges, the tradition has not disappeared. Many families in rural Purvanchal, as well as migrant communities living in other parts of India and abroad, continue to perform these songs during important ceremonies. Their continued practice demonstrates the resilience of cultural traditions even in changing social conditions.

Preserving a Living Heritage

The future of Sanskar Geet depends on both community participation and systematic documentation. Recording performances, preparing written collections, creating digital archives, and encouraging research in universities can help preserve this valuable tradition. Schools and higher education institutions can also introduce regional folk music into their curricula, helping students understand the cultural significance of their local heritage. Digital platforms, online archives, podcasts, and audio-visual documentation provide new opportunities to make these traditions accessible to younger generations. At the same time, preservation should not remain limited to archives. The songs must continue to be sung during family and community ceremonies, because living traditions survive through practice rather than documentation alone.

Conclusion

Purvanchal’s Sanskar Geet are among the most valuable expressions of India's folk heritage. They combine music, language, ritual, memory, and community into a single cultural tradition that has shaped the region’s identity for centuries. From the joyful celebration of birth to the emotional farewell of marriage and the philosophical acceptance of death, these songs accompany every important stage of life. Preserving Sanskar Geet means preserving much more than music. It means protecting the cultural memory, linguistic richness, social values, and collective identity of Purvanchal. As long as these songs continue to be sung, they will remain a living bridge between the past, the present, and the future.

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Shifting Paradigms of Tribal Music in India

 

Tribal music in India has long functioned as a vital expression of cultural identity, social structure, and collective memory. Rooted in rituals, festivals, and agrarian life, it has served as a medium through which communities transmit knowledge, values, and traditions across generations. Unlike formalised musical systems, tribal music is primarily oral, participatory, and context-driven, reflecting the lived experiences of indigenous communities. However, in recent decades, these traditions have undergone significant transformation due to broader processes of social and cultural change.

Contemporary research in anthropology and cultural studies highlights that tribal societies are not isolated or static, but dynamic and continuously evolving. Social change has become an inherent aspect of tribal life, requiring communities to negotiate between their indigenous traditions and external influences. As noted in studies on tribal transformation, the integration of tribal groups into regional, national, and global systems has altered their cultural practices, including music. This transformation is not merely a loss of tradition but a process of adaptation and reconfiguration. One of the primary drivers of this shift is modernisation. The transition from subsistence-based economies to market-oriented systems has reshaped the socio-economic fabric of tribal communities. Traditional contexts of musical performance, such as agricultural cycles and communal gatherings, are gradually diminishing. As a result, music that once emerged organically from daily life is increasingly being relocated to staged performances, institutional platforms, and cultural exhibitions, often detached from its original meaning. Migration has further accelerated these changes. Economic pressures and employment opportunities have led to increased mobility among tribal populations, exposing them to diverse cultural environments. This has resulted in the adoption of new musical styles, instruments, and forms of expression. While such interactions foster cultural exchange, they also contribute to the weakening of localised traditions, as younger generations show a greater inclination towards contemporary and globally influenced music.

The expansion of digital media and the commercialisation of music have also had a profound impact. Modern platforms prioritise standardised, high-production content that appeals to wider audiences. In contrast, tribal music, which relies on oral transmission and community participation, often lacks visibility in such spaces. Consequently, traditional instruments and performance practices face the risk of marginalisation and gradual disappearance.Economic challenges further compound this situation. Traditional musicians frequently lack sustainable sources of income, and the decline of community-based patronage has reduced support for their art. Without institutional mechanisms for preservation and promotion, many practitioners are unable to continue their musical traditions. At the same time, there is a growing awareness of cultural identity among tribal communities, leading to efforts to revive and preserve it. These initiatives reflect a conscious attempt to reclaim cultural heritage in the face of rapid change.

In conclusion, the shifting paradigms of tribal music in India illustrate a complex interplay between tradition and modernity. While processes such as modernisation, migration, and globalisation have transformed musical practices, they have also created new possibilities for adaptation and innovation. The challenge lies in ensuring that these transformations do not erode cultural heritage. Sustainable approaches that combine documentation, education, and community participation are essential to preserve the essence of tribal music while enabling its continuity in a changing world.

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Punjab Folk Music in Transition: A Cultural Analysis

 

The musical traditions of Punjab have historically been embedded within the socio-cultural and agrarian life of the region, functioning as integral modes of expression, communication, and identity formation. Folk genres such as gidda, mahiya, and tappay, along with instruments like tumbi and jodi, have traditionally reflected the rhythms of rural life, seasonal cycles, and community rituals. These musical forms were sustained through oral transmission and collective participation, thereby ensuring continuity across generations. Scholarly perspectives on tribal and folk cultures in India suggest that such traditions should not be understood as static or isolated entities, but as dynamic systems that evolve through historical interactions, socioeconomic changes, and cultural exchanges. In this context, the transformation of Punjabi musical traditions may be examined as part of a broader process of cultural negotiation shaped by migration, globalisation, and institutional shifts.

One of the central factors influencing the transformation of Punjabi folk music is the extensive migration of Punjabi populations to Western countries, particularly Canada, the United States, and the United Kingdom. This diasporic movement has led to the reconfiguration of Punjabi musical identity within transnational contexts. Research on Punjabi music indicates that diasporic communities often engage with music as a marker of identity, while simultaneously adapting it to global musical frameworks. This has resulted in the emergence of hybrid genres that integrate traditional Punjabi elements with contemporary forms such as hip hop, rap, and electronic music. While such developments have contributed to the global dissemination and commercial success of Punjabi music, they have also shifted its orientation from community-centred practices to industry-driven production models. Parallel to this outward migration, Punjab has experienced significant inward migration from states such as Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Himachal Pradesh, and Kashmir, particularly in the sectors of agriculture, industry, and labour. This demographic transformation has generated a pluralistic cultural environment, yet it has also contributed to the gradual weakening of localised folk practices that were previously sustained within relatively homogeneous community settings. The role of education and language in shaping cultural preferences constitutes another critical dimension of this transformation. The increasing prominence of English medium education in Punjab has influenced linguistic practices and cultural affiliations, particularly among younger generations. Language being central to musical expression, the shift towards English as a medium of aspiration and mobility has had implications for the transmission of Punjabi folk traditions. Empirical observations indicate a declining engagement with Punjabi language-based musical forms, resulting in reduced intergenerational continuity. Furthermore, the expansion of digital media and global music industries has facilitated the rapid growth of Punjabi popular music, characterised by high production values, electronic instrumentation, and global stylistic influences. While this has enhanced visibility and economic viability, it has simultaneously marginalised traditional musical forms that are rooted in oral traditions and community participation. The decline of traditional instruments and performance practices represents a significant outcome of these structural changes. Instruments such as the tumbi and jodi, once central to Punjabi folk expression, are increasingly absent from contemporary musical practice, and performance traditions such as gidda and mahiya are largely confined to staged or institutional contexts. This phenomenon aligns with broader patterns observed in indigenous musical traditions across India, where modernisation, urbanisation, and limited institutional support contribute to the erosion of intangible cultural heritage. Studies on indigenous music revival in regions such as Jharkhand emphasise that music functions as a repository of collective memory, identity, and social resilience, and its decline signifies a deeper process of cultural disconnection. Additionally, the economic marginalisation of traditional musicians, coupled with the decline of community-based patronage systems, has reduced the viability of sustaining folk musical practices. The dominance of industry-produced music and instruments further constrains the ability of traditional practitioners to adapt to contemporary market structures.

In conclusion, the transformation of Punjabi musical traditions reflects a complex interplay of migration, globalisation, educational shifts, and economic restructuring. While contemporary Punjabi music has achieved significant global prominence through diasporic networks and digital platforms, traditional folk practices face challenges related to continuity, relevance, and sustainability. The analysis indicates that the erosion of these traditions is not merely a cultural concern but also a reflection of broader socio-economic transformations. Therefore, there is a need for systematic and evidence-based interventions, including documentation, academic integration, and policy support, to ensure the preservation and revitalisation of Punjabi folk music. Drawing upon models of indigenous music revival that emphasise community participation, institutional collaboration, and sustainable livelihood frameworks, it may be possible to create pathways that allow traditional musical practices to coexist with modern innovations. Such an approach would contribute to maintaining cultural diversity while enabling adaptive transformation within the contemporary musical landscape.

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The journey of the Hindi film song and playback singing

 

Introduction

The journey of the Hindi film song and the evolution of playback singing. This journey closely follows the development of Hindi cinema itself. Film music in India has never existed in isolation. It has always reflected social structure, cultural values, political change, and technological development. Through songs, Hindi cinema has expressed ideas of love, faith, caste, gender, rebellion, and identity. Playback singing played a crucial role in shaping this musical and cinematic language.

Phase one

Silent era, 1913 to 1930

Mythology and moral storytelling

In the silent era, Hindi cinema did not have recorded sound and music onscreen, but music was still central to the film experience. Live musicians accompanied screenings in cinema halls. Most films were based on mythology and religious stories.  Raja Harishchandra was the first film by Dadasaheb Phalke in 1913, a milestone in Indian cinema history. Even though music was not part of the core cinema, and films were mute during the silent era, external sources of  Music helped audiences emotionally connect with divine characters and moral conflicts. The plot structure during this phase was strongly religious and moral. Caste hierarchy and gender roles were accepted as natural and unquestioned. Women were shown as ideal, pure, and sacrificial figures. Cinema functioned mainly as moral instruction rather than social critique.

Phase two

Talkies and pre-independence cinema, 1931 to 1947

Singing stars and social reform

The arrival of sound cinema changed everything. With Alam Ara in 1931, songs became an inseparable part of films. During this period, songs were recorded live, and actors sang their own. There was no full playback system yet. Music was influenced by Parsi theatre, folk music, devotional traditions, and Hindustani classical music. Orchestration was simple, using harmonium, tabla, dholak, sarangi and flute. Lyrics were poetic, often written in Urdu/Hindi, better known as Hindustani, with influences from Braj, Avadi, and Khadiboli, and a regional touch from Punjab, Rajasthan, and Maharashtra. 

This period gave rise to singing stars. K L Saigal became the most influential male singer-actor. Noor Jehan, Pankaj Mullick, and Kanan Devi were major figures. Composers like R C Boral, Khemchand Prakash, and Saraswati Devi laid the foundation of film music composition.The plot of Hindi cinema expanded beyond mythology. Films like Achhut Kanya addressed caste discrimination and inter-caste love. Duniya Na Mane focused on women’s rights and forced marriage. Cinema slowly began to question social injustice, becoming a voice for independence and social revolution. Music became a vehicle for reformist ideas and emotional persuasion. The First playback concept was driven by Bengali songs from Chandidas (1932), later remade in Hindi in 1934, and finally incorporated into Dhoop Chhao (1935). Lyrics were poetic, devotional and reform-oriented, influenced by Urdu poetry and theatre. Major lyricists: Kidar Sharma, Agha Hashar Kashmiri, Munshi Irshad Hussain. Themes included devotion, suffering, nationalism, caste reform and women’s pain.

Emergence of playback singing

Playback singing emerged gradually during the 1930s and 1940s. The idea came from folk theatre and Parsi theatre, where singers performed backstage while actors lip-synced. Films like Chandidas played an important role in formalising playback singing. Playback singing separated the singing voice from the on-screen actor. This allowed trained singers to focus on vocal excellence and freed composers to be more creative. It also introduced new musical professionalism into cinema. Playback singing changed film music permanently and created a new category of artists. The emerging studios  Bombay Talkies, Prabhat Film Company, and New Theatres also played a significant role in shaping cinema and playback singing during the period. 

Phase three

Golden era, 1947 to early 1960s

Melody, nation building and social faith

After independence, Hindi cinema entered its golden era. The plot of films focused on family values, social reform, moral struggle, and national identity. Films such as Andaz, Awara, Mother India, Pyaasa, Baiju Bawra, Devdas and Mughal-e-Azam defined this period. Playback singing reached its artistic peak. Lata Mangeshkar became the dominant female voice. Mohammed Rafi, Mukesh, Talat Mahmood and Geeta Dutt shaped the male and female vocal landscape. Composers like Naushad, Anil Biswas, Roshan and Madan Mohan integrated Hindustani classical ragas into film songs. Baiju Bawra marked a landmark in classical-based film music. Religion during this phase became more humanistic and ethical rather than ritualistic. Films promoted secular values. Gender representation improved slightly, with women portrayed as emotionally strong but still confined within patriarchal limits. Caste and class issues were explored in films like Do Bigha Zameen and Mother India. Peak of lyrical poetry with social and humanistic depth. Major lyricists: Shailendra, Sahir Ludhianvi, Majrooh Sultanpuri, Shakeel Badayuni. Themes included love, poverty, class struggle, idealism, secular values and moral questioning.

Phase four

1960s

Ghazal phase, culture and musical liberation and emotional refinement

The early 1960s saw the rise of the filmi ghazal. Madan Mohan became the leading composer of ghazals. Singers like Lata Mangeshkar and Talat Mahmood gave voice to poetic introspection. Films such as Woh Kaun Thi, Mere Mehboob, Taj Mahal and Mamta reflected emotional subtlety. The plot focused on inner conflict, romance and longing. However, this refined style soon felt limited as society changed. Refined, introspective and romantic lyrics dominated. Major lyricists: Raja Mehdi Ali Khan, Kaifi Azmi. Themes focused on longing, emotional conflict and poetic expression. With urbanisation and youth culture, Hindi cinema underwent a major shift. The hero transformed into a carefree and expressive figure. Shammi Kapoor symbolised this change. Music became louder, faster and rhythm-driven. Shankar Jaikishan, Mohammed Rafi and Shammi Kapoor created energetic musical expressions. Western influences like rock and jazz entered film music. Gender roles also shifted slightly. Heroines became more expressive and visually liberated. Cinema reflected changing ideas of romance and freedom. It was the era of new hope, a charm of society and the films, music with family drama, love, affection and a kind of social transformation because India was just free from long colonisation and new hope was seen in the film plot and music of the era. 

Phase five 

1970s- 80s

Social rebellion and changing musical priorities

The 1970s were dominated by themes of injustice, anger and rebellion. Films such as Zanjeer, Deewar and Sholay reflected political unrest and social imbalance. Social injustice, moral values, and new hope collapsed due to visionless politics. The social structure of India was once again changed by the rise of Chaudharies and Landlords in politics, and the hope given by independence was slowly disappearing from civil society. The British were replaced by capitalists, so Dialogue and action became more important than songs to revolt against such capitalists; however, revolutionary songs were composed and featured in films during the period. From another angle, Kishore Kumar emerged as the dominant male voice, and His singing style was conversational and emotionally direct. R D Burman became the most influential composer, experimenting with electronic sounds and fusion. Parallel cinema preserved poetic music through films like Aandhi, Parichay and Chhoti Si Baat. Gender issues and class conflicts were addressed more realistically in this space.

Decline of melody and commercial excess

The 1980s are considered a low point for Hindi film music. Formula-based compositions, repetitive rhythms and loud orchestration dominated. Melody and lyrical depth declined. The lyrics were by Anand Bakshi, Gulzar, Majrooh Sultanpuri, and Javeed Akhtar, who wrote for the film.  Some exceptions existed, such as Khayyam’s work and ghazal-based films like Umrao Jaan. However, mainstream cinema largely moved away from musical sophistication. Social issues persisted, but music lost its narrative strength.  

Phase Six 

Late 1980s and 1990s

Romantic revival and musical dominance

Romantic films like Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak and Maine Pyar Kiya revived melody and emotional sincerity. Playback singers such as Udit Narayan and Alka Yagnik emerged. Kumar Sanu, Vinod Rathod, Abhijeet, Sonu Nigam, Sadhana Sargam, Anuradha Padwal, Kavita Krishnamurthy, Luck Ali, and KK were the prominent singers who sang for the film and made the era romantic. The 1990s restored the musical film. Films like Hum Aapke Hain Kaun, Dil, Kuch Kuch Hota Hai and Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge made music central again. Romance, family values and youth culture dominated plots. Gender representation became more expressive, though still idealised. A R Rahman introduced a new musical language that combines melody, technology, and global sound. Lyricists brought poetry back into popular cinema. Jatin-Lalit, Anand-Milind, Nadim-Shravan, and, of course, L.K. Pyarelal, Ravi, Bappi Da, and Ravindra Jain were the music composers who tested something new and later became trends. Lyricists like Sameer, Anand Bakshi, Prasoon Joshi, and Irshad Kamil wrote for the film and made the romantic genre  their own through literature and poetry. 

Phase Seven

2000 onwards

Digital era, realism and spectacle

From the early 2000s onwards, Hindi cinema entered a digital era marked by technological advancement, thematic diversity, and a redefinition of the role of music in films. Unlike earlier decades, where songs often interrupted the narrative, music in this period became closely integrated with the storyline, character psychology, and social context. Songs were increasingly used to advance the plot, establish ideological positions, or deepen emotional realism rather than serving solely as standalone entertainment.

Films such as Lagaan, Rang De Basanti, Rock On, Munna Bhai M.B.B.S. and 3 Idiots demonstrated how music could blend with social awareness, political commentary, youth culture, and urban realism. In these films, songs functioned as narrative tools, expressing protest, friendship, patriotism, inner conflict, and transformation. Music composition during this period was dominated by composers who successfully combined melody with modern technology. A. R. Rahman played a central role in redefining Hindi film music by blending Indian classical sensibility with global sounds, electronic programming, and layered orchestration. His work in Lagaan, Rang De Basanti, and later films demonstrated how music could carry ideological depth as well as emotional resonance. Other important composers such as Shankar–Ehsaan–Loy, Pritam, and Vishal–Shekhar* contributed to the expansion of musical styles, incorporating rock, pop, jazz, and electronic dance music while maintaining narrative relevance. Lyrics in the digital era became more varied in tone and content. Lyricists such as Javed Akhtar, Gulzar, Prasoon Joshi, and Irshad Kamil wrote songs that addressed identity, politics, gender sensitivity, social inequality, and emotional complexity. Lyrics moved fluidly between poetic expression and contemporary language, reflecting urban life as well as regional and cultural diversity.

Playback singing also underwent significant change during this period. Traditional voice-based stardom gave way to versatility and texture. Singers such as Sonu Nigam, Shreya Ghoshal, Sunidhi Chauhan, Shaan, Arijit Singh, and Mohit Chauhan became prominent voices. Playback singing became more character-specific, with singers adapting vocal colour, diction, and emotional delivery to suit particular roles rather than maintaining a single iconic style. Technological innovation played a decisive role in shaping music production. Digital recording, sound layering, auto-tuning, synthesised orchestration, and advanced mixing techniques transformed the soundscape of Hindi cinema. Home studios replaced large recording halls, and background scores gained importance alongside songs. Music also began circulating through digital platforms, changing listening habits and reducing the dominance of film songs as long-term cultural memory. Caste, religion, and politics became more visible and explicit in cinematic narratives during this era. Films such as Article 15, PK, OMG – Oh My God, and The Kashmir Files used music sparingly but purposefully to underline ideological conflict, human suffering, and moral questioning. Music in such films supported narrative realism rather than romantic fantasy. At the same time, large-scale spectacle-driven cinema emerged strongly. Films such as Ra.One, Baahubali, Brahmastra, and Kalki integrated music with visual effects, grand orchestration, and myth-inspired narratives. In these films, background music and theme motifs became as important as songs, enhancing spectacle and emotional scale. In summary, the digital era transformed Hindi film music into a multifaceted narrative element. Music moved beyond melody-driven popularity to become a tool for realism, ideology, spectacle, and emotional depth. Playback singing adapted to character and context, lyric writing reflected contemporary concerns, and technology reshaped production and listening practices. Together, these changes marked a decisive new phase in the journey of the Hindi film song.

Sources: Web, books, and self-analysis of the music. 

Note: The category/phase  is given by the author only for educational purposes after analysing the music and plot of Hindi Cinema 

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Western Aesthetics

Aesthetics is the branch of philosophy that explores beauty, art, taste and the feelings we experience when we encounter artistic or natural creations. It asks simple but profound questions such as what makes something beautiful, how humans respond to art, and why creative expression holds meaning for us. While discussions on beauty existed since the time of Plato and Aristotle, aesthetics became a formal, independent discipline only in the eighteenth century. The credit for this development goes to the German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten, who is often called the father of aesthetics. His work inspired later thinkers like Immanuel Kant and G. W. F. Hegel, who shaped the larger movement of German idealism and gave aesthetics a more structured and philosophical foundation. 

How Baumgarten established aesthetics as a branch of philosophy

Baumgarten played a historic role by separating the study of beauty from general philosophy and giving it the name “aesthetics.” Before him, ideas about art and beauty were scattered across poetry, logic and metaphysics. He argued that human knowledge is not formed only through rational thinking but also through sensory experience and imagination. Because of this, he introduced a new science that studies the perfection of sensory understanding

A few of his important contributions include:

• He coined the word “aesthetics” to describe the science of sensory perception.
• He organised earlier ideas on art and beauty into a systematic structure.
• He highlighted imagination as a central creative force in artistic expression.
• He described art as a field that requires both intellect and emotional insight.
• His ideas prepared the ground for Kant’s later and more detailed aesthetic theory.

Through these steps, Baumgarten showed that the experience of beauty deserves its own method of inquiry, separate from scientific reasoning separate from scientific reasoning.

What is beauty ? 

In Baumgarten’s view, beauty is a kind of perfection that we perceive through our senses. It appears in nature, in artistic creations and in any form that shows order, unity and harmony.

Key points on his idea of beauty:

• Beauty is a “phenomenal perfection,” a harmonious unity felt through the senses.
• Nature reflects a spiritual and orderly universe, which is eternal and meaningful.
• Artists and poets reveal beauty by transforming nature into ideal forms.
• He agreed with the classical belief that truth, goodness and beauty are connected.
• He argued that beauty must be understood with knowledge and reflection, not through shallow enjoyment.
• Imagination, memories and inner imagery are essential for artistic creation.

For Baumgarten, beauty is both a sensory experience and a reflection of deeper spiritual truth

Idealism

German idealism is a philosophical movement that emphasises the active role of the mind, spirit and reason in shaping our understanding of the world. It emerged in the late eighteenth century and deeply influenced aesthetic theory.

In terms of aesthetics, German idealism suggests that:

• Art is more than copying nature; it is a creative interpretation of reality.
• Beauty arises when the inner spirit expresses itself through a visible or audible form.
• The ideal or “idea” becomes the true object of artistic expression.
• Art often resolves contradictions between nature and spirit, matter and idea, or form and meaning.

Baumgarten, Kant and Hegel all contributed to this movement, each giving a unique interpretation of how beauty and art express human consciousness.

Kant’s Aesthetics

Immanuel Kant transformed aesthetics by explaining how we judge beauty and how the mind participates in this experience. His ideas appear mainly in his work Critique of judgement.

Main ideas from Kant’s aesthetic theory:

1. Beauty is subjective yet universal
   According to Kant, beauty does not exist in the object itself but in the way our mind responds to it. Still, when we call something beautiful, we expect others to agree. That is why aesthetic judgement feels universal even though it is based on personal feeling.
2. Aesthetic pleasure is disinterested
   We enjoy beauty without wanting to own the object or expecting any practical benefit. The pleasure is pure and detached.
3. Purposiveness without purpose
   Beautiful objects appear meaningful and well-ordered, yet they serve no practical purpose. This balance creates aesthetic delight.
4. Harmony between imagination and understanding
   Beauty arises when our imagination and rational understanding work together in free, effortless harmony.
5. Nature and art
   Nature may seem beautiful, but the feeling of harmony actually arises within us. Art becomes beautiful when the artistic genius transforms ideas into expressive forms.
6. Importance of form
   Kant believed that shape, design and structure are more important for beauty than colours.

Kant created a rational and psychological framework that continues to guide modern aesthetic theory.

Hegel’s aesthetics

G. W. F. Hegel viewed art as one of the highest ways in which human spirit expresses truth. For him, beauty is the appearance of the “absolute idea” in a sensuous form. Art reveals the inner spiritual reality of the world.

Major ideas from Hegel:

1. Art goes beyond nature
   Hegel believed art is not just a mirror of nature. It elevates and reshapes nature so that the idea behind it becomes clearer.
2. Beauty as expression of the idea
   Something is beautiful when it sensuously expresses a deep spiritual or intellectual idea. Art fulfils this task better than nature.
3. Dialectical movement
   Hegel explained that art develops through conflict and resolution. Every idea contains its opposite, and the union of both creates a higher form. This process also appears in artistic creation.
4. Three stages of art
   Hegel identified three major types of art:
• Symbolic art – where form is inadequate to convey the idea fully.
• Classical art – where form and idea are perfectly balanced.
• Romantic art – where the inner idea dominates and the expression becomes more emotional and spiritual.
5. Five major arts
   Hegel considered poetry, music, painting, sculpture and architecture as the main branches of fine arts, with poetry being the highest.
6. Closeness to Indian philosophy
   Hegel’s idea of absolute spirit and synthesis has strong parallels with Indian philosophical concepts like Brahman and the unity of opposites

Hegel’s work presents art as a vital expression of human freedom and spiritual evolution.

Conclusion

The development of aesthetics as a philosophical discipline owes much to Baumgarten, Kant and Hegel. Baumgarten laid the foundation by defining aesthetics as the study of sensory understanding and beauty. Kant deepened the field by showing how our mind shapes aesthetic judgement and why beauty feels universal even though it is rooted in personal experience. Hegel expanded the discussion by understanding beauty as the manifestation of the absolute spirit and by explaining art’s historical and intellectual development.

Together, their ideas shaped the core of German idealist aesthetics and provided a lasting framework for understanding art, nature, creativity and the human experience of beauty.

 

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